Edward I begins Wales's castle ring

1283

The English king commissioned the Savoyard architect James of Saint George to build a chain of stone fortresses around Gwynedd, including Conwy, Caernarfon, and Harlech. Their concentric walls and coastal docks projected Plantagenet authority into a newly conquered province. The castles cost more than any other construction project in medieval England, consuming the equivalent of the crown's entire annual income for several years.